Tughlaq

Tughlaq ?

Tughlaq refers to a dynasty that ruled the Delhi Sultanate in India from the early 14th to the mid-15th century. The Tughlaq dynasty was established by Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq in 1320 and lasted until 1414. The rulers of the Tughlaq dynasty played an important role in the political, cultural, and military history of medieval India.

Here are some key details about the Tughlaq dynasty and its prominent rulers:

1. Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq (reigned 1320–1325): He founded the Tughlaq dynasty. Ghiyas-ud-Din was a former governor under the Delhi Sultanate and took control after the death of the last Khalji Sultan. His reign was marked by efforts to consolidate power and strengthen the empire, although his rule was short-lived.
2. Muhammad bin Tughlaq (reigned 1325–1351): One of the most famous and controversial rulers of the Tughlaq dynasty, Muhammad bin Tughlaq is known for his ambitious and often failed policies. He attempted to move the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (in present-day Maharashtra), a decision that proved disastrous. He also introduced a token currency system, which led to economic chaos. Despite these failures, he was a capable military leader.
3. Firoz Shah Tughlaq (reigned 1351–1388): Firoz Shah Tughlaq, a cousin of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, is remembered for his administrative reforms and efforts to improve the welfare of his people. He built several new cities, including Firozabad (modern-day Firoz Shah Kotla), and promoted infrastructure projects. Firoz Shah’s reign was relatively stable, though the dynasty’s power began to decline after his death.
4. Decline of the Tughlaq Dynasty: After Firoz Shah, the Tughlaq dynasty began to weaken due to internal conflict, ineffective rulers, and invasions by external forces. The last significant ruler of the dynasty was Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Tughlaq (reigned 1394–1412). After his reign, the Tughlaq dynasty’s control over the empire diminished, and it was eventually replaced by the Sayyid dynasty in the early 15th century.

The Tughlaq dynasty had a lasting impact on the history of medieval India, particularly in terms of administration, architecture, and military campaigns. Despite their ambitious plans, many of their policies, especially under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, were marked by failure and mismanagement.

What is Tughlaq ?

The term “Tughlaq” refers to a dynasty that ruled the Delhi Sultanate in India from 1320 to 1414. The Tughlaq dynasty was founded by Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq, and it was one of the major Muslim dynasties that controlled large parts of the Indian subcontinent during medieval times.

Key Features of the Tughlaq Dynasty:

1. Rulers: The Tughlaq dynasty had several important rulers, including:
   • Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq (the founder, ruled from 1320–1325)
   • Muhammad bin Tughlaq (famous for his ambitious and controversial policies, ruled from 1325–1351)
   • Firoz Shah Tughlaq (known for his administrative reforms and welfare programs, ruled from 1351–1388)
2. Capital: The dynasty is known for the attempt to shift the capital of the empire from Delhi to Daulatabad (in present-day Maharashtra) by Muhammad bin Tughlaq, though this decision proved to be a failure.
3. Policies and Failures: The Tughlaq rulers, especially Muhammad bin Tughlaq, are known for their bold but often disastrous policies. Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s experiments, such as the introduction of token currency and the forced relocation of populations, are seen as failures. These decisions led to instability and contributed to the eventual decline of the dynasty.
4. Decline: After the death of Firoz Shah Tughlaq in 1388, the dynasty gradually weakened, and by the early 15th century, the Sayyid dynasty took over the Delhi Sultanate.

Cultural and Administrative Contributions:

• The Tughlaq period saw architectural advancements, such as the construction of new cities and structures, like the Firoz Shah Kotla in Delhi.
• They also promoted education, and some of the Tughlaq rulers were known for their patronage of scholars and religious institutions.

Thus, Tughlaq is most commonly used to refer to the Tughlaq dynasty, a significant medieval Muslim ruling family in India, but the name is also linked to their reign, policies, and contributions.

Who is required Tughlaq ?

It seems like you’re asking about who “required” or “needed” Tughlaq, but the phrase is a bit unclear. If you’re asking who ruled under the Tughlaq dynasty or who was impacted by Tughlaq’s rule, here’s some context:

1. The People of the Delhi Sultanate: The rulers of the Tughlaq dynasty, particularly Muhammad bin Tughlaq, enacted policies that significantly affected the common people, both positively and negatively. For instance:
   • Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced a token currency system, which failed and led to inflation and chaos. His decision to shift the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad caused hardship for many.
   • Firoz Shah Tughlaq, on the other hand, focused more on administrative reforms and welfare programs, which improved the lives of some of the population.
2. The Nobility and Military: The military leaders and nobles of the Tughlaq court also played a key role in supporting the dynasty, often helping in expansion efforts or in stabilizing the rule. However, many Tughlaq rulers faced rebellions and challenges from within their own noble class, particularly during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
3. Other Dynasties and Powers: The Tughlaq rulers had to deal with external powers, including invasions by Mongols from the north and conflicts with regional kingdoms. The Tughlaq dynasty needed to maintain a strong military and diplomatic approach to secure their dominance.

If you meant something different by “who is required Tughlaq,” could you please clarify?

When is required Tughlaq ?

It seems you might be referring to the term “Tughlaq” in a specific context, but the phrase “when is required Tughlaq?” is unclear. If you’re asking when the Tughlaq dynasty ruled or about specific events or policies under the Tughlaq rulers, here is a clearer answer:

The Tughlaq Dynasty and its Rule:

The Tughlaq dynasty ruled over the Delhi Sultanate from 1320 to 1414. Key periods in their rule include:

1. Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq: The founder of the dynasty, who ruled from 1320 to 1325.
2. Muhammad bin Tughlaq: Ruled from 1325 to 1351 and is known for his ambitious but often failed policies.
3. Firoz Shah Tughlaq: Ruled from 1351 to 1388, known for more stable rule and welfare reforms.

When Tughlaq’s Policies Were Important:

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq‘s policies, such as moving the capital to Daulatabad (1327), the introduction of token currency (1329), and attempts to control various regions, were significant and required bold actions, but many of them ended in failure.
• Firoz Shah Tughlaq‘s rule was marked by relatively more successful administrative reforms and infrastructure projects, and this period was seen as a time of rebuilding and stabilization for the Sultanate.

If you meant something else, such as a different context or a specific event related to Tughlaq, could you clarify further?

Courtesy : Indian Musical Theatre

Where is required Tughlaq ?

t seems like you’re asking “Where is required Tughlaq?” but the question is still a bit unclear. If you’re referring to the Tughlaq dynasty, here’s some information that might help clarify:

Geographical Context of the Tughlaq Dynasty:

• The Tughlaq dynasty ruled over the Delhi Sultanate, which was centered in Delhi, India. The dynasty’s reign stretched over much of northern India, with influence reaching parts of central India and the Deccan Plateau.

Important Locations Related to the Tughlaq Dynasty:

1. Delhi: The capital of the Delhi Sultanate. It remained the main seat of the rulers, even when Muhammad bin Tughlaq moved the capital to Daulatabad.
2. Daulatabad (Modern-Day Maharashtra): Muhammad bin Tughlaq moved the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad in 1327, although this move was later abandoned due to logistical difficulties.
3. Firozabad: Founded by Firoz Shah Tughlaq, this city was built in the region of Delhi. Firoz Shah Tughlaq is known for constructing several cities and architectural projects.

The Relevance of Tughlaq:

If you mean where the Tughlaq rulers or policies were most impactful, the answer would be:

• Delhi and surrounding regions were primarily governed by the Tughlaq dynasty.
• Their policies, especially the relocation of populations, were intended to affect large areas under their rule, particularly during Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign.

Could you clarify if you’re asking about a specific location related to the Tughlaq dynasty or if you’re referring to something else?

How is required Tughlaq ?

It seems like you’re asking, “How is required Tughlaq?” but the phrasing is still a bit unclear. If you mean “How was the Tughlaq dynasty significant?” or “How did Tughlaq rulers impact their time?”, here’s some insight into the Tughlaq dynasty’s legacy and its impact on history:

The Tughlaq Dynasty and Its Significance:

1. Military Expansion: The Tughlaq dynasty, particularly under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, aimed for military expansion and consolidation. His reign saw attempts to expand the Sultanate’s control over southern India and central India.
2. Ambitious and Controversial Policies:
   • Muhammad bin Tughlaq is known for his bold and often unsuccessful policies:
     • Capital shift to Daulatabad: His decision to move the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (1327) was intended to make the empire more centrally located. However, it caused great hardship for the people, and the move was eventually reversed.
     • Token currency: He introduced token currency, which was intended to solve economic issues, but the policy led to inflation and a collapse in the economy.
3. Administrative Reforms:
   • Firoz Shah Tughlaq, in contrast, focused more on administrative stability and welfare programs. His reign was marked by:
     • Public works: He built new cities like Firozabad and promoted irrigation and infrastructure projects.
     • Charitable acts: He established hospitals, schools, and promoted social welfare initiatives.
4. Architectural Contributions: The Tughlaq dynasty is also known for its architectural innovations. For example, Firoz Shah Tughlaq built several important buildings and cities that are still remembered today, such as Firoz Shah Kotla in Delhi.
5. Decline: Over time, especially after the reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq, the dynasty faced internal conflicts, weak leadership, and external invasions, leading to its decline. By the early 15th century, the dynasty gave way to the Sayyid dynasty.

How the Tughlaq Dynasty Was “Required“:

The Tughlaq dynasty’s rule was required for:

• The consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate during a period of instability.
• The expansion and defense of territories.
• The administrative and infrastructural development, especially during Firoz Shah’s reign, which helped maintain order and improve the lives of people in the empire.

If this is not the answer you were looking for, could you please clarify your question a bit more?

Case study is Tughlaq ?

A case study of Tughlaq typically refers to an in-depth analysis of the Tughlaq dynasty and its rulers, particularly their policies, actions, and their impacts on the Delhi Sultanate and medieval India. Given the controversial and ambitious nature of many of their decisions, the Tughlaq dynasty provides an interesting case study in political decision-making, governance, and its consequences.

Here’s a detailed case study that focuses on the rule of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, one of the most prominent and debated rulers of the Tughlaq dynasty:

Case Study: The Reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq

1. Background:

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq (reigned 1325–1351) is one of the most infamous figures in Indian history, mainly due to his ambitious and often failed policies. He ascended the throne after the death of his father, Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq, and initially started his rule with promise, but his decisions led to considerable chaos and unrest.

2. Key Policies and Actions:

• Shift of the Capital to Daulatabad (1327):
  • One of the most famous and controversial moves during Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign was his decision to shift the capital of the empire from Delhi to Daulatabad (present-day Maharashtra).
  • He believed that Daulatabad, being centrally located, would make the administration more efficient and protect the empire from external threats, particularly from Mongol invasions.
  • However, this decision proved disastrous:
    • The shift led to immense hardships for the people, who had to travel long distances in difficult conditions.
    • Many people, including the nobles, resented this move, and it led to economic and social disruption.
    • The capital was eventually moved back to Delhi, acknowledging the failure of this policy.
• Introduction of Token Currency (1329):
  • Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced a token currency system with the idea of solving the economic problem caused by a shortage of precious metals.
  • The token currency, which was made of bronze and copper, was meant to be backed by the value of the gold and silver currency.
  • However, the policy had significant consequences:
    • Counterfeiting became rampant, and people lost confidence in the token currency.
    • The economy faced inflation, and many people abandoned the currency system altogether.
  • This experiment ended in failure, and the Sultan was forced to reverse the policy.
• Military Campaigns and Expansion:
  • Muhammad bin Tughlaq embarked on several military campaigns, particularly in the Deccan and South India, to expand the reach of the Delhi Sultanate.
  • His most ambitious military campaign was in Karnataka and Tirunelveli, which proved costly, both financially and in terms of manpower.
  • His campaigns were often marked by high taxes and the forced recruitment of soldiers, which led to widespread resentment and rebellions.

3. Reasons for Failure:

• Overambitious Policies: Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s policies were often overly ambitious, attempting to implement reforms that were too radical or impractical given the conditions of the time.
• Poor Execution: While many of his ideas, such as moving the capital or creating token currency, might have been theoretically plausible, their implementation was poorly managed, leading to their eventual failure.
• Economic Disruption: His policies often led to economic instability. The token currency debacle and the shift of the capital created significant social and financial unrest.
• Alienation of Nobility and People: Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s centralization of power and the forced migrations created widespread alienation. His reign saw growing dissatisfaction among the people and the nobility, which contributed to frequent rebellions.

4. Impact on the Delhi Sultanate:

• Decline of Authority: While Muhammad bin Tughlaq was initially seen as a capable ruler, the failure of his policies undermined his authority and damaged the integrity of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Instability: The policies weakened the Sultanate, leading to a period of instability after his reign. The Tughlaq dynasty began to decline after his death, and regional powers started to assert their autonomy.
• Legacy: Muhammad bin Tughlaq is often remembered as a ruler whose vision was too advanced for his time. His reign is a classic example of the dangers of radical reforms without proper consideration of the practical realities of governance.

5. Conclusion:

The case study of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign serves as a lesson in governance and the importance of understanding the limitations of state power. It highlights the consequences of implementing ambitious reforms without considering the economic, social, and logistical realities of the time. While his intentions may have been to strengthen the empire, his failures contributed to the instability that affected the Delhi Sultanate for years to come.

This case study exemplifies the complexity of leadership and the challenges faced by rulers in managing large empires. It is often cited in political science, history, and economics as an example of how visionary ideas can fail when not properly executed or when the broader context is not carefully considered.

Courtesy : Garvit Narula

White paper on Tughlaq ?

A white paper on the Tughlaq dynasty would be an authoritative, in-depth report or analysis focused on the historical significance, political strategies, and key events of the Tughlaq dynasty that ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1320 to 1414. This white paper would typically be aimed at providing insights into the impact of the Tughlaq rulers, especially Muhammad bin Tughlaq, whose reign is often studied for its ambitious, controversial, and failed policies. Below is an outline of what a white paper on the Tughlaq dynasty might look like:

---

White Paper on the Tughlaq Dynasty: A Study of Ambitious Leadership, Policies, and Legacy

Executive Summary:

The Tughlaq dynasty, established in 1320 by Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq, ruled the Delhi Sultanate for nearly a century, leaving a profound impact on the political, administrative, and economic landscape of medieval India. The dynasty is best known for its ambitious rulers, particularly Muhammad bin Tughlaq, whose radical policies and decisions marked a defining period in the history of the Delhi Sultanate. This white paper examines the key events and policies of the Tughlaq rulers, evaluates their effectiveness, and assesses their lasting impact on the empire and Indian history.

---

1. Introduction

• Background of the Tughlaq Dynasty:
  • The Tughlaq dynasty emerged following the decline of the Khalji dynasty and marked a new phase in the history of the Delhi Sultanate.
  • The dynasty was founded by Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq in 1320, and his son, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, became one of the most notable rulers in Indian history.
• Importance of the Tughlaq Dynasty:
  • Known for its territorial expansion, administrative reforms, and controversial experiments, the Tughlaq dynasty is often cited in the study of medieval Indian politics.

---

2. Political Landscape and Rulers of the Tughlaq Dynasty

• Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq (1320–1325):
  • Founding of the Tughlaq Dynasty: Ghiyas-ud-Din ascended to the throne after the assassination of the last Khalji ruler, establishing the Tughlaq dynasty.
  • Consolidation of Power: His reign focused on stabilizing the empire after a period of political instability, and he was successful in extending his control over the northern regions of India.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351):
  • Innovative but Controversial Leadership: Muhammad bin Tughlaq is remembered for his visionary but flawed reforms, including his attempts to shift the capital to Daulatabad, the introduction of token currency, and ambitious military campaigns.
  • Capital Shift to Daulatabad: His decision to relocate the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (1327) aimed to centralize power, but it was disastrous for both the common people and the state.
  • Token Currency Experiment: The introduction of token currency (1329) was intended to solve currency shortages but led to economic chaos, inflation, and a collapse in the economy.
• Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388):
  • Stabilizing the Empire: Firoz Shah’s reign was characterized by a focus on administrative reforms and public welfare. He introduced policies that promoted the construction of infrastructure, including new cities, canals, and wells.
  • Cultural Contributions: Firoz Shah’s patronage of scholars, poets, and architects helped foster a culturally rich environment, even as his policies focused on maintaining stability.
• Decline of the Tughlaq Dynasty:
  • After Firoz Shah’s death, the dynasty entered a period of instability. The successors were weak, and the empire saw internal divisions and external invasions. By the early 15th century, the Sayyid dynasty replaced the Tughlaq dynasty.

---

3. Key Policies and Their Impact

• Administrative Reforms:
  • Muhammad bin Tughlaq attempted several administrative reforms, such as tax reforms and the introduction of a bureaucratic system. However, his inability to enforce these changes led to the failure of many reforms.
  • Firoz Shah Tughlaq, on the other hand, succeeded in implementing administrative measures like land reforms and a focus on public welfare, which brought stability to the empire.
• Economic Impact:
  • The token currency policy is one of the most debated aspects of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s rule. Intended to ease the shortage of precious metals, the policy led to inflation, widespread counterfeiting, and economic instability.
  • Firoz Shah’s economic policies focused on agricultural growth, promoting irrigation, and reducing taxes on farmers.
• Military Campaigns:
  • Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s military expeditions were ambitious, particularly his campaigns in the Deccan and southern India. However, these campaigns drained the empire’s resources and led to widespread rebellion.
  • Firoz Shah was less militarily ambitious but focused on consolidating power within his territories.

---

4. Legacy of the Tughlaq Dynasty

• Architectural Contributions:
  • The Tughlaq period saw significant architectural development, including the construction of Firoz Shah Kotla and other cities like Firozabad.
  • Their reign also saw advancements in fortification, mosques, and canals.
• Decline and Consequences:
  • The Tughlaq dynasty’s internal instability and external invasions, particularly from the Mongols and regional kingdoms, weakened the central authority.
  • Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s failure to manage his ambitious reforms, coupled with economic collapse, contributed to the eventual decline of the dynasty.
• Impact on the Delhi Sultanate:
  • The Tughlaq dynasty’s reign ultimately demonstrated both the potential and limits of visionary leadership in a medieval empire.
  • Despite the failures of some of their policies, the Tughlaqs left behind a rich legacy in terms of governance, infrastructure, and culture.

---

5. Conclusion and Analysis

• The Tughlaq dynasty’s rule remains one of the most complex and debated periods in medieval Indian history. While their policies were often ambitious and innovative, they were often poorly executed, leading to their downfall.
• The legacy of the Tughlaq dynasty teaches important lessons in the challenges of governance, especially in the context of centralization, reform, and economic management.

---

6. Recommendations for Further Research

• Further study could examine the social and cultural dynamics during the Tughlaq era, particularly how their policies affected different sections of society.
• More detailed research could also explore the long-term consequences of the Tughlaq policies on the formation of subsequent dynasties, especially the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties.

---

This white paper provides a structured analysis of the Tughlaq dynasty’s reign, focusing on the most influential rulers, their policies, and their long-term impact on Indian history.

Industrial application of Tughlaq ?

The Tughlaq dynasty, which ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1320 to 1414, is primarily studied for its political, administrative, and economic impacts in medieval India, rather than for direct contributions to industrial applications. However, some of the policies and developments during the Tughlaq period had indirect effects on economic and technological advancements, which could be seen as early forms of industrial development or infrastructure growth that supported later industrial applications in India.

Here are a few industrial applications or economic developments during the Tughlaq period that could be linked to broader industrial impacts:

1. Infrastructure Development

• Agriculture and Irrigation Projects:
  • Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388) made substantial contributions to agricultural development, which are indirectly linked to industrial applications. He initiated the construction of canals for irrigation, particularly in Punjab and Haryana. This helped increase agricultural productivity, which provided surplus produce to support growing urban centers and potential industrial activities in the future.
  • By improving irrigation infrastructure, the Tughlaq rulers created an environment conducive to agricultural surplus, which laid the foundation for economic growth in later periods.

2. Urbanization and City Building

• Firoz Shah Tughlaq is credited with establishing several new cities, including Firozabad, and promoting the development of urban infrastructure, such as markets, fortifications, and public buildings. This urbanization spurred early trade, which laid the foundation for future commercial and industrial activity. Urban centers often became hubs for crafts, manufacturing, and small-scale industries, particularly in textiles, metalwork, and pottery.

3. Trade and Commerce

• Under the Tughlaq rulers, trade flourished due to the empire’s vast territorial reach. Muhammad bin Tughlaq also attempted to create a unified economic system, though his token currency system (introducing coins made of copper and brass) was a failure. The idea of standardized currency, however, was an early attempt to facilitate trade and commerce and could be seen as an early form of monetary policy that supported economic activity.
• The establishment of standardized trade practices and coinage would later be important for more complex economic systems, especially during the Mughal period, which saw the growth of craft industries and manufacturing.

4. Metallurgy and Currency Production

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq is famous for introducing the token currency system in 1329, where copper and brass coins were issued with the aim of easing the shortage of precious metals (gold and silver) used in coinage. While the policy failed due to counterfeiting and poor execution, it nevertheless demonstrated an early form of mass production in the minting industry.
• The failure of this policy highlights the early industrial applications of metalworking, as minting processes were central to the economy. The Tughlaq period saw the use of bronze, copper, and iron in currency production, and while the experiment was unsuccessful, it laid the groundwork for minting technologies that would later improve during the Mughal era.

5. Craftsmanship and Textile Production

• The Tughlaq period was a time when artisanship and craftsmanship were highly valued in society. The rulers, especially Firoz Shah Tughlaq, encouraged the production of textiles, pottery, metalwork, and carpentry.
• While not “industrial” in the modern sense, the growing urbanization under the Tughlaq rulers created conditions for the specialization of labor, which is an important step toward the development of industrial production. The high demand for goods in the expanding urban centers necessitated a more systematic approach to manufacturing, albeit on a smaller scale.

Conclusion:

While the Tughlaq dynasty did not directly contribute to what we would call modern industrial applications, it created the conditions for such developments through urbanization, infrastructure improvements, economic experimentation, and encouragement of craftsmanship. Their attempts at improving agricultural productivity, trade, and coinage were significant in the pre-industrial economy, and they provided important groundwork for later developments in the Mughal era, when India saw the growth of industries such as textiles, metalworking, and manufacturing.

The Tughlaq period can therefore be seen as a precursor to some of the industrial practices and innovations that would unfold in India in the subsequent centuries.

Research and development of Tughlaq ?

The Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1414) ruled the Delhi Sultanate and is primarily known for its political and administrative changes, particularly under Muhammad bin Tughlaq. The period, especially during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, did see some attempts at research and development (R&D), though the modern concept of R&D didn’t exist at the time in the way we understand it today. However, the dynasty’s initiatives in economics, administration, and infrastructure can be viewed as early forms of experimentation and innovation that aimed at solving problems faced by the empire.

Here’s a look at the research and development activities that took place under the Tughlaq dynasty:

1. Economic Innovation: Token Currency System

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced the token currency system in 1329 as a response to the shortage of precious metals (gold and silver) for minting coins. The aim was to use cheaper metals, such as copper and bronze, to create coins that had the same value as the precious metal coins.
• While the experiment failed due to counterfeiting, inflation, and a lack of public trust, it can still be viewed as an early form of economic research and experimentation. The introduction of token currency was an attempt to develop a new financial system that could have revolutionized trade and commerce.
• The token currency system is often regarded as one of the earliest forms of monetary policy experimentation, showcasing an effort to adapt to economic challenges. Though unsuccessful, it laid the groundwork for future developments in coinage and economic management.

2. Administrative Reforms and Bureaucratic Innovation

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq was also known for his administrative experiments. For example, he tried to introduce centralized bureaucratic systems with direct control over his empire. He set up systems of taxation and administration that required detailed knowledge and planning, which can be seen as a form of organizational research to improve governance.
• He also attempted to standardize land revenues and set up systems for land surveys, which are the precursors to modern economic data collection methods used for tax assessments and policy planning.
• These experiments were aimed at creating a more efficient state, and although many of his reforms were abandoned due to execution failures, they were rooted in a desire for better data-driven governance.

3. Capital Shifting and Urban Planning

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq made another bold move when he decided to shift the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad in 1327. The move was motivated by strategic considerations—Daulatabad was more centrally located, making it easier to govern the entire Sultanate, which extended over a vast territory.
• The decision to relocate the capital involved significant research into geographical considerations and urban planning, including the construction of new infrastructure such as roads and fortifications. While the relocation failed due to the logistical challenges of moving such a large population, it demonstrated an innovative approach to governance and urban development.

4. Agricultural Development and Irrigation Projects

• Firoz Shah Tughlaq, who followed Muhammad bin Tughlaq, invested in agricultural development by focusing on irrigation and the construction of canals to improve farming in regions like Punjab, Haryana, and parts of northern India. His focus on irrigation systems and agricultural research aimed to increase crop yields and ensure food security.
• The Firoz Shah Canal was one of the most important agricultural engineering projects of his time and can be viewed as an early form of research into water management and agriculture. His work in this area contributed to improved agricultural productivity, which in turn supported the growth of the economy.

5. Scientific and Technological Advancements

• The Tughlaq dynasty, particularly during Firoz Shah Tughlaq’s rule, is also known for its support of artisans, craftsmen, and scholars. While there was no formal scientific research system like modern universities or laboratories, the promotion of learning and the arts under Firoz Shah Tughlaq led to technological and craft innovations.
• Firoz Shah invited craftsmen from different parts of the Islamic world to improve the quality of craftsmanship, including the construction of mosques, palaces, and public buildings. The dynasty promoted the development of arts such as metalwork, textile production, and architecture.
• Firoz Shah also sponsored scholars and worked on the translation of works on mathematics, medicine, and astronomy, suggesting a kind of knowledge-sharing that can be linked to the development of ideas in science and technology.

---

Conclusion:

Although the Tughlaq dynasty didn’t have structured research and development (R&D) programs in the modern sense, the period was marked by experimentation, innovation, and attempts to solve complex governance and economic challenges. The rulers, particularly Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firoz Shah Tughlaq, introduced reforms in currency, administration, military strategies, and agriculture that were based on research into the issues of their time.

Their failures (e.g., token currency, shifting of the capital) and successes (e.g., irrigation and public works) reflect early forms of policy innovation and technological experimentation that laid the groundwork for later developments in governance, economic policy, and infrastructure in the Indian subcontinent.

The Tughlaq period can, therefore, be considered an important phase in the history of experimentation and development in various sectors, even if it did not formally align with modern-day concepts of R&D.

Courtesy : SRCPA

References

1. ^ Grey flag with black vertical stripe according to the Catalan Atlas of c. 1375:  in the depiction of the Delhi Sultanate in the Catalan Atlas
2. ^ Kadoi, Yuka (2010). “On the Timurid flag”. Beiträge zur islamischen Kunst und Archäologie. 2: 148. doi:10.29091/9783954909537/009. …helps identify another curious flag found in northern India – a brown or originally silver flag with a vertical black line – as the flag of the Delhi Sultanate (602–962/1206–1555).
3. ^ Note: other sources describe the use of two flags: the black Abbasid flag, and the red Ghurid flag, as well as various banners with figures of the new moon, a dragon or a lion. “Large banners were carried with the army. In the beginning the sultans had only two colours : on the right were black flags, of Abbasid colour; and on the left they carried their own colour, red, which was derived from Ghor. Qutb-u’d-din Aibak’s standards bore the figures of the new moon, a dragon or a lion; Firuz Shah’s flags also displayed a dragon.” in Qurashi, Ishtiyaq Hussian (1942). The Administration of the Sultanate of Delhi. Kashmiri Bazar Lahore: SH. MUHAMMAD ASHRAF. p. 143. , also in Jha, Sadan (8 January 2016). Reverence, Resistance and Politics of Seeing the Indian National Flag. Cambridge University Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-107-11887-4., also “On the right of the Sultan was carried the black standard of the Abbasids and on the left the red standard of Ghor.” in Thapliyal, Uma Prasad (1938). The Dhvaja, Standards and Flags of India: A Study. B.R. Publishing Corporation. p. 94. ISBN 978-81-7018-092-0.
4. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e f g h i j} Jackson, Peter (2003). The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521543293.
5. ^ Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical atlas of South Asia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 147, map XIV.3 (j). ISBN 0226742210.
6. ^ “Arabic and Persian Epigraphical Studies – Archaeological Survey of India”. Asi.nic.in. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
7. ^ Eaton, Richard Maxwell (8 March 2015). The Sufis of Bijapur, 1300-1700: Social Roles of Sufis in Medieval India. Princeton University Press. pp. 41–42. ISBN 978-1-4008-6815-5.
8. ^ Eaton, Richard Maxwell (8 March 2015). The Sufis of Bijapur, 1300-1700: Social Roles of Sufis in Medieval India. Princeton University Press. pp. 41–42. ISBN 978-1-4008-6815-5.
9. ^ Keith Brown; Sarah Ogilvie (2008), Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World, Elsevier, ISBN 978-0-08-087774-7, Apabhramsha seemed to be in a state of transition from Middle Indo-Aryan to the New Indo-Aryan stage. Some elements of Hindustani appear … the distinct form of the lingua franca Hindustani appears in the writings of Amir Khusro (1253–1325), who called it Hindwi[.]
10. ^ Lombok, E.J. Brill’s First Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol 5, ISBN 90-04-09796-1, pp 30, 129-130
11. ^ Edmund Wright (2006), A Dictionary of World History, 2nd Edition, Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780192807007
12. ^ Sen, Sailendra (2013). A Textbook of Medieval Indian History. Primus Books. pp. 90–102. ISBN 978-9-38060-734-4.
13. ^ Eaton, Richard Maxwell (8 March 2015). The Sufis of Bijapur, 1300-1700: Social Roles of Sufis in Medieval India. Princeton University Press. pp. 41–42. ISBN 978-1-4008-6815-5.
14. ^
    • Kimberly Klimek; Pamela Troyer; Sarah Davis-Secord; Bryan Keene, Global Medieval Contexts 500 – 1500: Connections and Comparisons, These included the Mamluk dynasty of greater Egypt and Central Asia (1206-1290), the Turko-Afghan Khalji dynasty (1290- 1320), the Turko-Indian Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1414), the Sayyid dynasty of Multan (Punjab, Pakistan; 1414-1451)
    • Sikhs: A Story of a People, Their Faith and Culture, p. 22, At the turn of the 15th century, Punjab lay under the reign of the Indo-Turkic Tughlaq Dynasty. However, the Delhi Sultanate, as the empire was called, had started floundering
15. ^ Jump up to:^a b W. Haig (1958), The Cambridge History of India: Turks and Afghans, Volume 3, Cambridge University Press, pp 153-163
16. ^ Jump up to:^a b Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1970, p. 460.
17. ^ An Advanced History of Muslim Rule in Indo-Pakistan. the University of Michigan. 1967. p. 94.
18. ^ Aniruddha Ray (2019). The Sultanate of Delhi (1206-1526)Polity, Economy, Society and Culture. Routledge. ISBN 9781000007299.
19. ^ ÇAĞMAN, FİLİZ; TANINDI, ZEREN (2011). “Selections from Jalayirid Books in the Libraries of Istanbul” (PDF). Muqarnas. 28: 231. ISSN 0732-2992. JSTOR 23350289. Muhammad Tughluq and his successors were contemporaries of the Jalayirid sultans; both dynasties were Turco-Mongol
20. ^ Jamal Malik (2008). Islam in South Asia: A Short History. Brill Publishers. p. 104. ISBN 978-9004168596. The founder of this new Turkish dynasty…
21. ^ Khalid Ahmad Nizami (1997). History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume 06, the Delhi Sultanate. Royalty in Medieval India. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. p. 8. ISBN 9788121507332.
22. ^ Jump up to:^a b Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1970, p. 461.
23. ^ Farooqui, Salma Ahmed (2011). A comprehensive history of medieval India: twelfth to the mid-eighteenth century (First impression ed.). India: Pearson India Education Services. ISBN 978-81-317-3202-1.
24. ^ Surender Singh (30 September 2019). The Making of Medieval Panjab: Politics, Society and Culture c. 1000–c. 1500. Routledge. ISBN 9781000760682.
25. ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1970, pp. 460, 461.
26. ^ Massing, Jean Michel; Albuquerque, Luís de; Brown, Jonathan; González, J. J. Martín (1 January 1991). Circa 1492: Art in the Age of Exploration. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-05167-4.
27. ^ The caption for the Sultan of Delhi reads: Here is a great sultan, powerful and very rich: the sultan has seven hundred elephants and a hundred thousand horsemen under his command. He also has countless foot soldiers. In this part of the land there is a lot of gold and precious stones.
    The caption for the southern king reads:
    Here rules the king of Colombo, a Christian.
    He was mistakenly identified as Christian because of the Christian mission established in Kollam since 1329.
    
    In Liščák, Vladimír (2017). “Mapa mondi (Catalan Atlas of 1375), Majorcan cartographic school, and 14th century Asia” (PDF). International Cartographic Association. 1: 5. Bibcode:2018PrICA…1…69L. doi:10.5194/ica-proc-1-69-2018.
28. ^ Cartography between Christian Europe and the Arabic-Islamic World, 1100-1500: Divergent Traditions. BRILL. 17 June 2021. pp. 176–178. ISBN 978-90-04-44603-8.
29. ^ Jump up to:^a b Holt et al. (1977), The Cambridge History of Islam, Vol 2, ISBN 978-0521291378, pp 11-15
30. ^ Vincent Smith, The Oxford Student’s History of India at Google Books, Oxford University Press, pp 81-82
31. ^ Jump up to:^a b c William Hunter (1903), A Brief History of the Indian Peoples, p. 123, at Google Books, Frowde – Publisher to the Oxford University, London, 23rd Edition, pages 123-124
32. ^ Elliot and Dowson (Translators), Tarikh-I Alai Amir Khusru, The History of India by its own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pages 67-92; Quote – “The Rai again escaped him, and he ordered a general massacre at Kandur. He heard that in Brahmastpuri there was a golden idol. (He found it). He then determined on razing the beautiful temple to the ground. The roof was covered with rubies and emeralds, in short, it was the holy place of the Hindus, which Malik dug up from its foundations with the greatest care, while heads of idolaters fell to the ground and blood flowed in torrents. The Musulmans destroyed all the lings (idols). Many gold and valuable jewels fell into the hands of the Musulmans who returned to the royal canopy in April 1311. Malik Kafur and the Musulmans destroyed all the temples at Birdhul, and placed in the plunder in the public treasury.”
33. ^ Tarikh-I Firoz Shahi Ziauddin Barni, The History of India by its own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pages 214-218
34. ^ Mohammad Arshad (1967), An Advanced History of Muslim Rule in Indo-Pakistan, OCLC 297321674, pp 90-92
35. ^ Jump up to:^a b Tarikh-I Firoz Shahi Ziauddin Barni, The History of India by its own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pages 229-231
36. ^ Jump up to:^a b c William Lowe (Translator), Muntakhabu-t-tawārīkh, p. 296, at Google Books, Volume 1, pages 296-301
37. ^ Tarikh-I Firoz Shahi Ziauddin Barni, The History of India by its own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pages 233-234
38. ^ ÇAĞMAN, FİLİZ; TANINDI, ZEREN (2011). “Selections from Jalayirid Books in the Libraries of Istanbul” (PDF). Muqarnas. 28: 230, 258 Fig.56. ISSN 0732-2992. JSTOR 23350289.
39. ^ Elliot and Dowson (Translators), Travels of Ibn Battuta Ibn Battuta, The History of India by its own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pages 609-611
40. ^ Henry Sharp (1938), DELHI: A STORY IN STONE, Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, Vol. 86, No. 4448, pp 324-325
41. ^ Elliot and Dowson (Translators), Táríkh-i Fíroz Sháh Ziauddin Barani, The History of India by its own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pages 609-611
42. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Vincent A Smith, The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911, p. 217, at Google Books, Chapter 2, pp 236-242, Oxford University Press
43. ^ Elliot and Dowson, Táríkh-i Fíroz Sháhí of Ziauddin Barani, The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period (Vol 3), London, Trübner & Co
44. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Muḥammad ibn Tughluq Encyclopædia Britannica
45. ^ Tarikh-I Firoz Shahi Ziauddin Barni, The History of India by its own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pp. 236–237
46. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Tarikh-I Firoz Shahi Ziauddin Barni, The History of India by its own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pp. 235–240
47. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e f} William Hunter (1903), A Brief History of the Indian Peoples, p. 124, at Google Books, 23rd Edition, pp. 124-127
48. ^ Tarikh-I Firoz Shahi Ziauddin Barni, The History of India by its own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pp. 236–238
49. ^ Aniruddha Ray (4 March 2019). The Sultanate of Delhi (1206-1526): Polity, Economy, Society and Culture. Routledge. ISBN 9781000007299. The Sultan created Daulatabad as the second administrative centre. A contemporary writer has written that the Empire had two capitals – Delhi and Daulatabad.
50. ^ Carl W. Ernst (1992). Eternal Garden: Mysticism, History, and Politics at a South Asian Sufi Center. SUNY Press. ISBN 9781438402123.
51. ^ Aniruddha Ray (4 March 2019). The Sultanate of Delhi (1206-1526): Polity, Economy, Society and Culture. Routledge. ISBN 9781000007299.
52. ^ Aniruddha Ray (4 March 2019). The Sultanate of Delhi (1206-1526): Polity, Economy, Society and Culture. Routledge. ISBN 9781000007299. The primary result of the transfer of the capital to Daulatabad was the hatred of the people towards the Sultan.
53. ^ Richard Eaton, Temple Desecration and Muslim States in Medieval India at Google Books, (2004)
54. ^ Raj Kumar (2003). Essays on Medieval India. Discovery Publishing House. p. 82. ISBN 9788171416837.
55. ^ Kate Fleet, Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas, Devin J. Stewart. “Jalal al-Din Ahsan”.
56. ^ M. S. Nagaraja Rao (1987). Kusumāñjali:New Interpretation of Indian Art & Culture : Sh. C. Sivaramamurti Commemoration Volume · Volume 2.
57. ^ Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, A History of India, (Routledge, 1986), 188.
58. ^ Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India by Jl Mehta p. 97
59. ^ A Social History of the Deccan, 1300-1761: Eight Indian Lives, by Richard M. Eaton p.50
60. ^ Jump up to:^a b Vincent A Smith, The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911, p. 217, at Google Books, Chapter 2, pp. 242–248, Oxford University Press
61. ^ Ahmed Farooqui, Salma (2011). Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson. p. 150. ISBN 9789332500983.
62. ^ Architecture and art of the Deccan sultanates (Vol 7 ed.). Cambridge University Press. 1999. p. 7. ISBN 9780521563215.
63. ^ Wink, André (2020). The Making of the Indo-Islamic World C.700-1800 CE. Cambridge University Press. p. 87. ISBN 9781108417747.
64. ^ Government Gazette The United Provinces of Agra and Oudh (Part 2 ed.). Harvard University. 1910. p. 314.
65. ^ See:
    • M. Reza Pirbha, Reconsidering Islam in a South Asian Context, ISBN 978-9004177581, Brill
    • Richards J. F. (1974), The Islamic frontier in the east: Expansion into South Asia, Journal of South Asian Studies, 4(1), pp. 91–109
66. ^ McCann, Michael W. (15 July 1994). Rights at Work: Pay Equity Reform and the Politics of Legal Mobilization. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-55571-3.
67. ^ Suvorova (2000). Masnavi. p. 3.
68. ^ Husaini (Saiyid.), Abdul Qadir (1960). Bahman Shāh, the Founder of the Bahmani Kingdom. Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay. pp. 59–60.
69. ^ Jayanta Gaḍakarī (2000). Hindu Muslim Communalism, a Panchnama. p. 140.
70. ^ Tarikh-I Firoz Shahi Ziauddin Barni, The History of India by its own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pages 239-242
71. ^ Cornelius Walford (1878), The Famines of the World: Past and Present, p. 3, at Google Books, pp. 9–10
72. ^ Judith Walsh, A Brief History of India, ISBN 978-0816083626, pp. 70–72; Quote: “In 1335-42, during a severe famine and death in the Delhi region, the Sultanate offered no help to the starving residents.”
73. ^ Domenic Marbaniang, “The Corrosion of Gold in Light of Modern Christian Economics”, Journal of Contemporary Christian, Vol. 5, No. 1 (Bangalore: CFCC), August 2013, p. 66
74. ^ John Keay, India: A History (New Delhi: Harper Perennial, 2000), p. 269
75. ^ Jump up to:^a b Tarikh-I Firoz Shahi Ziauddin Barni, The History of India by its own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pp. 241–243
76. ^ Chandra, Satish (1997). Medieval India: From Sultanate to the Mughals. New Delhi, India: Har-Anand Publications. pp. 101–102. ISBN 978-8124105221.
77. ^ Vincent A Smith, The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911, Oxford University Press, Chapter 2, pp. 236–242
78. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Ross Dunn (1989), The Adventures of Ibn Battuta: A Muslim Traveler of the 14th Century, University of California Press, Berkeley, Excerpts Archived 24 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine
79. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Ibn Battuta’s Trip: Chapter 7 – Delhi, capital of Muslim India Archived 24 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine Travels of Ibn Battuta: 1334-1341, University of California, Berkeley
80. ^ George Roy Badenoc (1901), The Imperial and Asiatic Quarterly Review and Oriental and Colonial Record, p. 13, at Google Books, 3rd Series, Volume 9, Nos. 21-22, pp. 13–15
81. ^ McKibben, William Jeffrey (1994). “The Monumental Pillars of Fīrūz Shāh Tughluq”. Ars Orientalis. 24: 105–118. JSTOR 4629462.
82. ^ HM Elliot & John Dawson (1871), Tarikh I Firozi Shahi – Records of Court Historian Sams-i-Siraj The History of India as told by its own historians, Volume 3, Cornell University Archives, pp 352-353
83. ^ Prinsep, J (1837). “Interpretation of the most ancient of inscriptions on the pillar called lat of Feroz Shah, near Delhi, and of the Allahabad, Radhia and Mattiah pillar, or lat inscriptions which agree therewith”. Journal of the Asiatic Society. 6 (2): 600–609.
84. ^ Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India no.52. 1937. p. Plate II.
85. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e f g} Jackson, Peter (1999). The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 296–309. ISBN 978-0-521-40477-8.
86. ^ Elliot and Dowson (Translators), Tarikh-i Firoz Shahi Shams-i Siraj ‘Afif, The History of India by its own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pp. 271–273
87. ^ Elliot and Dowson (Translators), Tarikh-i Firoz Shahi Shams-i Siraj ‘Afif, The History of India by its own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pp. 290–292
88. ^ Firoz Shah Tughlak, Futuhat-i Firoz Shahi – Memoirs of Firoz Shah Tughlak, Translated in 1871 by Elliot and Dawson, Volume 3 – The History of India, Cornell University Archives
89. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Vincent A Smith, The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911, p. 217, at Google Books, Chapter 2, pp. 249–251, Oxford University Press
90. ^ Firoz Shah Tughlak, Futuhat-i Firoz Shahi – Autobiographical memoirs, Translated in 1871 by Elliot and Dawson, Volume 3 – The History of India, Cornell University Archives, pp. 377–381
91. ^ Elliot and Dowson (Translators), Tarikh-i Firoz Shahi Shams-i Siraj ‘Afif, The History of India by its own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pp. 365–366
92. ^ Annemarie Schimmel, Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, ISBN 978-9004061170, Brill Academic, pp 20-23
93. ^ Jump up to:^a b William Hunter (1903), A Brief History of the Indian Peoples, p. 126, at Google Books, Frowde – Publisher to the Oxford University, London, 23rd Edition, pp. 126–127
94. ^ Jackson, Peter (1999). The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 305–310. ISBN 978-0-521-40477-8.
95. ^ Agha Mahdi Husain (1963), Tughluq Dynasty, Thacker Spink, Calcutta
96. ^ Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical atlas of South Asia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 39, 147. ISBN 0226742210.
97. ^ Elliot and Dowson (Translators), Tarikh-i Firoz Shahi Shams-i Siraj ‘Afif, The History of India by its own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pp. 367–371
98. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e f} Jackson, Peter (2003). The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 305–311. ISBN 978-0521543293.
99. ^ Jump up to:^a b Bihamadkhani, Muhammad (date unclear, estim. early 15th century) Ta’rikh-i Muhammadi, Translator: Muhammad Zaki, Aligarh Muslim University
100. ^ B.F. Manz, The rise and rule of Timur, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1989, p. 28: “… We know definitely that the leading clan of the Barlas tribe traced its origin to Qarchar Barlas, head of one of Chaghadai’s regiments … These then were the most prominent members of the Ulus Chaghadai: the old Mongolian tribes – Barlas, Arlat, Soldus and Jalayir …”
101. ^ M.S. Asimov & C. E. Bosworth, History of Civilizations of Central Asia, UNESCO Regional Office, 1998, ISBN 92-3-103467-7, p. 320: “… One of his followers was […] Timur of the Barlas tribe. This Mongol tribe had settled […] in the valley of Kashka Darya, intermingling with the Turkish population, adopting their religion (Islam) and gradually giving up its own nomadic ways, like a number of other Mongol tribes in Transoxania …”
102. ^ Hunter, Sir William Wilson (1909). “The Indian Empire: Timur’s invasion 1398”. The Imperial Gazetteer of India. Vol. 2. p. 366.
103. ^ Marozzi, Justin (2004). Tamerlane: Sword of Islam, conqueror of the world. HarperCollins.
104. ^ Josef W. Meri (2005). Medieval Islamic Civilization. Routledge. p. 812. ISBN 9780415966900.
105. ^ Majumdar, R.C. (ed.) (2006). The Delhi Sultanate, Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, pp. 125–8
106. ^ Jump up to:^a b c H. Gibb (1956), The Travels of Ibn Battuta, Vols. I, II, III, Hakluyt Society, Cambridge University Press, London, pp. 693–709
107. ^ Anderson, Jennifer Cochran; Dow, Douglas N. (22 March 2021). Visualizing the Past in Italian Renaissance Art: Essays in Honor of Brian A. Curran. BRILL. p. 125. ISBN 978-90-04-44777-6. detail of elephant near Delhi
108. ^ Ibn Batutta, Travels in Asia and Africa, 1325-1354, Translated by H Gibb, Routledge, ISBN 9780415344739, p. 203
109. ^ “The Travels of Ibn Battuta”. Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 2014-08-24.
110. ^ Per painting label
111. ^ Ibn Batutta, Travels in Asia and Africa, 1325-1354, Translated by H Gibb, Routledge, ISBN 9780415344739, pp. 208–209
112. ^ “nak̲h̲k̲h̲ās”, Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Editors: P.J. Bearmanet al, Brill, The Netherlands
113. ^ I.H. Siddiqui (2012), Recording the Progress of Indian History: Symposia Papers of the Indian History Congress, Saiyid Jafri (Editor), ISBN 978-9380607283, pp. 443–448
114. ^ Elliot and Dowson (Translators), Tarikh-i Firoz Shahi Shams-i Siraj ‘Afif, The History of India by its own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pp. 340–341
115. ^ Insights into Ibn Battuta’s Ideas of Women and Sexuality Archived 13 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine The Travels of Ibn Battuta, University of California, Berkeley
116. ^ Samuel Lee (translator), Ibn Battuta – The Travels of Ibn Battuta: in the Near East, Asia and Africa, 2010, ISBN 978-1616402624, pp. 151–155
117. ^ James Brown (1949), The History of Islam in India, The Muslim World, Volume 39, Issue 1, pp. 11–25
118. ^ Bloom, Jonathan (1995). The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250-1800. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300064650. Retrieved 25 September 2017.
119. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Elliot and Dowson (Translators), Tarikh-i Firoz Shahi Shams-i Siraj ‘Afif, The History of India by its own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pp. 287–373
120. ^ Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) By Satish Chandra p. 210 [1]
121. ^ William McKibben (1994), The Monumental Pillars of Fīrūz Shāh Tughluq. Ars orientalis, Vol. 24, pp. 105–118